Human Development
by Papalia & Olds
Eighth Edition  

Sidney Hall  

Chapter 1
The Study of Human Development

Possible Reasons for taking this course  

•    Development Realistic Expectations

•    Be able to respond appropriately

•    Recognize departures from the norm

•    Know thyself  

The changes of our lives  

• Quantitative changes

• Qualitative changes  

Periods of the life span

• Prenatal period  (conception to birth)

• Infancy and toddlerhood  (birth to age 3

• Early childhood  (3-6 years)

• Middle childhood  (6 to 11 years)

• Adolescence  (11 to about 20 years)

• Young adulthood  (20 to 40 years)

•  Middle adulthood  (40 to 65 years)

• Late adulthood  (65 years and over)  

Influences on Development

• Heredity

• Environment

• Maturation

• Family

• Socioeconomic Status  (SES)  

Major Contextual Influences  

• Family, nuclear, single person, divorced, stepparent, cohabitation, gay & lesbians

• Socioeconomic Status

• Normative Influences

• Nonnormative Influences

• Critical Periods  

Chapter2
Theory and Research

Psychoanalytic Perspective  

• Sigmund Freud’s Personality Theory  

–Unconscious Drives    

Principles Influencing Development

•  Life instinct-Eros & Death instinct-Thanatos

•  Polarity Principle-Ambivalence

•  Pleasure Principle-related to Id

•  Reality Principle-related to Ego

•  Obsessive-Compulsive Principle  

•  Superego Development  

Psychosexual Stages
Fixations  

•  Erogenous zones

–  Oral stage  (birth to 12-18 months)  

–  Anal stage  (12-18 months to 3 years)

–  Phallic stage  (3-6 years) Oedipus & Electra Complex

–  Latency stage  (6 years to puberty)

–  Genital stage  (puberty through adulthood)  

Defense Mechanisms

Rationalization  

•   Repression

•   Reaction Formation

•   Regression

Psychosocial Stages—Erick Erickson’s   8  Stages of Man

•  Trust vs. mistrust  (birth to 12-18 months)

•  Autonomy vs. Doubt  (12-18 months to 3 years

•  Initiative vs. Guilt  (3 to 6 years)

•  Industry vs. Inferiority  (6 years to puberty)

•  Identity vs. Role Confusion  (puberty to young adulthood

•  Intimacy vs. Isolation  (young adulthood 20-40 years

•  Generativity vs. Stagnation  (middle adulthood 40-65 years)

•  Integrity vs. Despair  (late adulthood 65 plus years  

Social-Learning Theory

• Observe and imitate models

• We choose our own models  

Humanistic Perspective

• Physiological needs

• Safety needs

• Belongingness & love needs

• Self-esteem needs

• Self-actualization  

Jean Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory

• Egocentrism

• Schemes

• Assimilation

• Accommodation

• Equilibration  

Vygotsky’s Basic Assumptions

• Children internalize the values of their caregivers

•  Dialogue is essential to promote cognitive development

•  Thought and language become interdependent and merge at 2 years

•  Children perform more challenging tasks when assisted by competent individuals

•  We must consistently challenge a child’s cognitive limits if they are to reach their potential  

The Scientific Method

• Sampling

• Baby biographies

• Interviews

• Questionnaires

• Naturalistic Observation

• Case Studies

• Correlational Studies  

Experiments

• Hypothesis

• Experimental Group

• Control Group

•   Independent Variable

• Dependent Variable  

Developmental Research Designs

•   Longitudinal Studies

• Cross-Sectional Studies

• Cross Sequential Studies  

Chapter 3

Conceiving New Life  

Wrong Reasons We Have Children  

• Children will give my life meaning

• I want to be a good daughter

• I can’t be a real woman without having a baby

• A baby will patch up my bad marriage

When To Have Children?

• Early

• Parents have more physical energy

• Have fewer medical problems

• More psychologically in tune with children

• Fewer years to engage in risk factors, etc, drinking, smoking, hypertension

·        Late

More time to think about their goals

Parents are more mature

Parents are better established in their careers

Parents are more likely to financially secure  

How Fertilization Takes Place

• Gametes, or sex cells, ova and sperm combine to create a zygote

• Females have approximately 400,000 ova at birth

• Ovulation occurs every 28 days until menopause

• Sperm are produced in the testes-several million a day

Multiple Births

• Dizygotic ( two-egg) twins or fraternal twins

• Monozygotic (one-egg) twins or identical twins

• Conjoined (one-egg) twins or Siamese twins

Chances of Having Multiple Births

• 1-89 are twins

• 1-70 in African Americans

• 1-88 in Whites

• 1-300 in Chinese

• 1-56 in Belgians

• 1-7000 are triplets

• 1-400,000 are quadruplets

Genes and Chromosomes

• Estimated 60,000 to 100,000 genes made of DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid

• 46 chromosomes occur in 23 pairs

• ¾ of genes are monomorphic-in all humans

• ¼ are polymorphic-unique to individuals

• By meiosis, sperm and wva end up with 23 chromosomes

• By mitosis the cells divide over and over

What Determines Sex?

• Autosomes are 22 chromosome pairs of chromosomes not related to the  sex of the child

• Sex chromosomes are the 23^rd pair and are always XX in the mother, and XY in the father

• About 6-8 weeks, if is a male will begin producing testosterone

Patterns of Genetic Transmission

• 1860’s Gregor Mendel cross-bred yellow and green pea plants

• Yellow was dominant

• Green was recessive

• Most traits fall along a spectrum-like skin color

Trait Expression

• Homozygous alleles

• Heterozygous alleles

• Genotype-genetic makeup

• Phenotype-observable traits

Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities

• Birth disorders account for 22 percent of infant deaths

• Some defects are due to abnormalities in the genes or chromosomes

• Some to mutations-permanent alternations in genes or chromosomes

• Inherited predispositions interact with the environment, spina bifida or ADDH

Defects by Sex-Linked Inheritance

• Red-green color-blindness

• Hemophilia

• Baldness

• Klinefelter Syndrome XXY

• Turner Syndrome XO

• Superfemale XXX

Down’s Syndrome, Mongoloid, Trisomy 21

• Mental retardation

• Sloping eyes

• Stubby fingers

Down’s Syndrome-continued

• 1-40 occurrence when mother is over 45 years old

• 1-2000 occurrence when mother is 25 years old

• 5 percent occurrence when father is over 50

• High risk of developing Alzheimer’s Disease

Genetic Counseling

• Helps assess risk of bearing a child with genetic or chromosomal defects-by use of a Karyotype

Possible Uses of Genetic Profiles

• Gene therapy-possible repair in utero

• Employment, insurance, sterilize some

• Genome studies to be completed by 2003

• Genetic determinism

• Therapy for baldness, being thinner, higher IQ

• Cloning in humans

• To determine when and what diseases you will have

• To determine at what age you will die

How Heredity and Environment Work Together

• Reaction Range-range of potential expressions

• Canalization-opportunity for variance

• Nonshared environmental effects on siblings, sex of children, birth order, way we treat each child, illness accidents, experiences outside the home

Physical and Physiological Traits

• Monozygotic are more concordant for medical disorders, hypertension, heart disease, stroke, etc.

• Obesity-80 percent of risk is genetic-200 genes are linked with obesity

• Longevity-days on this earth-we are twice as likely to die young if both our parents die before they are 50 years old

Inherited Emotional Traits

• Intelligence-50 percent inherited

• Prenatal environment accounts for 20 percent of similarity in twins and 5 percent of nontwins

• Personality-66 percent inherited

• Extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness

• 15 percent shy and 15 percent bold

• Psychopathology-schizophrenia, autism, alcoholism, depression, much higher concordance in identical twins and family members

Prenatal Development

• 266 days in the womb-800 billion cells

• Cephalocaudal development

• Proximodistal development

Prenatal Stages

• Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks) only 10-20 percent of fertilized eggs complete implantation

• Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks)

• 50-70 percent of miscarriages involve chromosomal abnormalities

• 125 males conceived to 100 females

• 106 males born to 100 females

• Are 96 males to 100 females in U.S.

• At age 85, are 257 females to 100 males

     Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth)

Environmental Influences

• Teratogenic (birth defect-producing)

• Nutrition 300-500 more calories & gain 22-46 pounds

• Physical activity-keep heart rate below 150

• Drug intake-thalidomide, DES, Accutane, Aspirin, Alcohol and FAS, Nicotine, Caffeine, Marijuana, Opiates, HIV

Other Environmental Influences

• Maternal age-more defects after 35 years of age

• Environmental hazards-lead poisoning, radiation

• Father’s exposure to marijuana, lead, tobacco, alcohol, radiation, pesticides

Prenatal Assessments

• Ultrasound

• Amniocentesis 15-18^th week

• Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

• Embryoscopy

• Preimplanation genetic diagnosis

• Umbilical cord sampling

• Maternal blood test