Chapter 10

The Developing Self

Self-Esteem  

• At 4 years, children have a sense of self-worth
• At 7-8 years, children can focus on more than one dimension of selves
• Industry vs. Inferiority-virtue of “competence,” are able to compare their abilities with their peers

Compare Selves

• Physical appearance
• Social acceptance
• Schoolwork
• Conduct
• Athletics
• Some develop a “helpless pattern” or have a need to try harder

Emotional Growth

• At 7-8, can internalize shame and pride and suppress emotions to protect against ridicule or rejection
• Girls begin showing more sadness and pain
• Now children begin developing more prosocial behavior

The Child in the Family

• Spend more time away from home and with peers
• Coregulation-parent and child share power
• Through family conflict, children learn rules and standards of conflict
• 1-2 school-aged children are physically punished-increases antisocial behavior

Effects of Mother’s Employment

• 3-4 of mothers work
• The more satisfied mother is with employment, more effective is as a parent
• Have more structured homes
• Their children express less gender stereotyped behavior
• Low income boys, especially benefit by her being employed

Effects of Poverty on Parenting

• Low income parents feel anxious, depressed, less affectionate, have harsher and more inconsistent discipline, more authoritarian, contradictory parental messages, breeds more antisocial behavior in their children

Family Structure

• Intact families-two biological parents or parents who adopted the child in infancy
• Traditional families-less likely to repeat a grade, be expelled, or have emotional problems
• Little difference in single or blended families and how children develop when parents divorce
• 1 million children involved a year
• Is always a shock when divorce
• Many feel guilty about their imaginary role

Six Tasks Related to Divorce

• Acknowledge reality
• Disengage from parental conflict
• Resolve loss of parent not live with
• Resolve anger & self-blame
• Accept permanence of divorce
• Achieve realistic hope for own intimate relationships

Living In A One-Parent Family

• All have 50 percent chance of living with one parent
• Usually spend at least 5 years with a single parent before they remarry
• 32 percent of U.S. households are headed by a single parent

One-Parent Families-continued

• Involve 62 percent of African Americans
• 27 percent of whites
• 36 percent of Hispanics
• U.S. highest of all single parent families
• 1-3 births to unwed mothers
•  Children have more academic problems

Living In a Blended Family

• 75 percent of mothers remarry
• 80 percent of fathers remarry
• Are called blended or reconstituted families
• 2^nd marriages are more likely to fail
• Girls find stepparents a threat
• Stepparents must be “hands off”

Living With Gay or Lesbian Parents

• Number of children ranges from 6-14 million
• Are no more likely to be gay or confused by own gender than children of heterosexuals

Relationships With Grandparents

• May have a special relationship as teacher, role model, confidant
• Divorce especially hurts paternal grandparents
• May get visitation privileges if judge allows
• Some become parents by default

Siblings Relationships

• Number, spacing, birth order, gender are important
• Siblings provide a laboratory for conflict resolution
• Two brothers quarrel more than any other combination
• 1^st borns are more bossy, higher achievers
• Younger-plead, reason, negotiate, cajole

The Child in the Peer Group

• Peer group is now a big influence
• Most friends are in the same SES, neighborhood, age, and sex
• Peers help one learn gender appropriate behavior and prejudice
• Help one gauge their abilities
• Help decide what behaviors to keep or discard

Popularity

• Popularity is good predictor of later adjustment
• Popular children-have better cognitive skills, higher achievement, and are more assertive
• Unpopular-are more aggressive, hyperactive, inattentive, withdrawn, silly, immature
• Authoritative parents help children to be more popular, some can be trained to be popular

Friendships

• Show biases for those like themselves
• Girls more biased for gender
• Boys more ethnically biased
• Typically have 3-5 best friends
• Play with 1 or 2 at a time
• Girls have fewer and more intimate friendships, boys have larger number

Aggression and Bullying

• Relational Aggression-“putting down” spreading rumors, teasing
• There is more bullying in Middle Chidhood

Television Violence Related to Aggression

• Most children watch 12 to 25 hours a week
• Harmful actions are on 8-12 times an hour
• Some children are more prone to aggression
• Children imitate filmed violence more than real violence
• At 8 years, is best predictor of aggression

Disruptive Behavior Disorders

• Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
• Conduct Disorder (CD)
• School Phobia
• Separation Anxiety Disorder
• Children Depression

Treatment Techniques

• Individual therapy
• Family therapy
• Behavior therapy
• Drug therapy
• Some are very resilient children

Chapter 11

Adolescence:  A Developmental Transition

Rites of Passage

• Bar mitzvah
• First menstruation
• Obtaining a driver’s license
• Clitoridectomy

Puberty:  The End of Childhood

• Gonads secret hormones
• Ovaries in females-secret estrogen
• Testes in males-secret testosterone
• Timing may depend on critical weight level
• Is a seven-year rant in onset

Puberty-continued

• Secular Trend-earlier attainment
• Girls enter at 10 years-mature at 12.5
• Boys enter at 12 year-mature at 14.5
• African Americans enter 1 ½ years earlier

Adolescent Growth Spurt

• Lasts 2-4 years
• At 11-13, girls are taller and heavier
• Most reach adult height by 18 years
• Girls are unhappier about their appearance
• Budding of breasts-first sign in girls
• Voice deepens and develop pubic hair

Primary and Secondary Characteristics

• Primary-directly related to reproduction
• Females-ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina
• Males-testes, penis scrotum, seminal vesicles, prostate gland
• Secondary-not related to reproduction

Signs of Sexual Maturity

• Spermarche-boys’ first ejaculation
• Manarche-girls’ first menstruation

Effects of Early vs. Late Maturation

• Girls-not like being early, causes poor self-esteem, poor body image, eating disorders, substance abuse
• Boys-like being early, when late causes to feel inadequate, self-conscious, rejected

Physical Fitness

• 50 percent of boys are physically active
• 25 percent of girls are physically active
• Girls require 2200 calories
• Boys require 2800 calories
• 11.5 percent are obese

Eating Disorders

• Obesity

• Anorexia Nervosa

• Bulimia Nervosa
• 10 times more females than males, all feel rejected and have low self-esteem

Treatment and Outcomes for Anorexia and Bulimia

• Better outlook for bulimia
• Relapse is higher with anorexia
• 25 percent anorexics progress to invalidism
• 2-10 percent die prematurely
• Both treated with antidepressants and behavior therapy

Risk Factors for Abusing Drugs

• Poor impulse control
• Family influences-genetic
• Difficult temperament
• Early behavior problems
• Academic failure
• Peer Rejection

Risk factors-continued

• Associating with drug users
• Alienation & rebelliousness
• Favorable attitudes toward drug use
• Early drug use

Gateway Drugs:  Alcohol, Marijuana, and Tobacco

• If drink before 15 years, are 4 times more likely to be an alcoholic rather than if start at 20 years old
• Marijuana-most widely used illicit drug
• Tobacco-causes lung cancer, heart disease, emphysema
• 1-3 high seniors smoke-most due to peers

Deaths in Adolescence

• Accidents-leading cause among 15-24 year olds
• Rate 3 times higher for males
• Twice as high for blacks than whites
• African Americans-homicide is number one killer, 9 times greater than in whites
• Auto accidents-leading cause in whites
• Guns in home-3 times more homicide and 10 times more suicide

Piagets’ Formal Operation Stage

• Starts at 11 years-can understand metaphors, begin abstract reasoning
• Imaginary audience
• Personal fable

Educational & Vocational Issues

• School is the central organizing experience
• 83 percent of 25 year olds graduate
• Student goals are most influenced by parents

Parenting Styles

• Authoritative-urge look at both sides of an argument
• Authoritarian-tell not to argue, say will know better when grow up
• Permissive-no rules or care about grades

Employment Influences

• Working over 15-20 hours-causes more drop outs, eat less breakfast, less sleep, less time with family, more drug use, cheating, stealing

Dropping Out of High School

• Hispanics-have highest rate
• Low income more likely to drop out
• More children of single parents and remarried
• Most important factor-whether children are “actively engaged” in their education

Chapter 12

The Search For Identity  

Identity vs. Identity Confusion

• In adolescence-one modifies and synthesizes earlier identifications
• Must organize abilities, needs, interests and desires
• The danger is role confusion and a delay in reaching psychological adulthood

Identity Forms Around Resolving Three Issues

• Choice of an occupation
• Adoption of values
• Satisfying sexual identity
• Erickson describes the male identity as being the norm for his theory

Identity Development

• Men do reach intimacy until they first achieve identity
• Women define themselves through marriage and develop identity and intimacy together

Self-Esteem

• It develops in relationship with peers-mostly those of the same sex
• Men of high self-esteem seek to assert self with male friends
• Females with high self-esteem, want to help female friends in a collaborative way
• Girls self-esteem falters after 10-11 years

Sexual Orientation

• Heterosexual
• Homosexual
• Bisexual

Homosexuality

• No longer considered a mental illness
• Caused mostly by interaction of hormones and the environment
• In identical twins-50 percent concordance
• In fraternal twins-20 percent concordance
• Supposedly is shaped before or after birth at an early age

Sexual Attitudes & Behavior

• Greater acceptance of premarital sex
• Decline of the double standard
• Trend toward later marriages
• By 18, 1 of 2 girls and 3 of 4 boys have had sex

Sexual Risk Taking

• Sexually transmitted diseases
• Pregnancy
• Risk factors-early puberty, poverty, poor school performance, sex abuse, parental neglect
• Strongest predictor-intention to be sexually active and belief that their friends already are, social pressure

Use of Contraceptives

• Condom best safeguard for STD’s and pregnancy
• ¾ use them the first time have sex
• The younger the girl, the less likely are to use contraceptives
• Nonusers have lower educational aspirations
• Have more alcohol and drug use

Where Teens Get Information About Sex

• 40 percent get it from the media
• TV reinforces the double standard
• U.S.-highest rate of STD’s in the industrialized world

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD’s)

• 1-4 Americans have an STD
• ¼ obtain one before high school graduation
• HIV transmitted through bodily fluids-mainly through blood and semen

Teenage Pregnancy and Childbearing

• 1-10 of 15-19 year olds-get pregnant each year
• 85 percent are unplanned
• 50 percent-plan to raise to raise own child
• Fewer are given up for adoption

Teen Pregnancy-continued

• Blacks are twice as likely to get pregnant
• 79 percent are to unwed girls
• Not eat properly
• Not gain enough weight
• Inadequate prenatal care
• Have more premature babies
• Fathers are more likely to drop out of school

How Adolescents Spend Their Time

• Time with family declines to 14 percent of waking hours
• Weekends and evenings are high points of their week
• “Cruising,” risky behavior, use alcohol or drugs
• Are happiest when with their peer

Adolescents and Their Parents

·        Argue most over “how much” or “how soon” or day-to-day matters-chores, schoolwork, dress, money curfews, dating

·        Not have real arguments over fundamental values, such as religion or sexual behavior

Parenting Styles

• Authoritative- is still best-are willing to listen, explain, and negotiate
• Authoritarian-may be counterproductive
• Parents who show disappointment in their teenagers misbehavior are more effective in motivating them to improve

Effects of Mothers’ Employment

• Teens whose mothers work are better adjusted and feel better about themselves
• Spend less time on homework
• Are more susceptible to peer pressure
• More unsupervised to smoke, drink, risky behavior
• Daughters-less stereotyped about career

Family Structure

• With 2 parents-less use of alcohol, cigarettes, or illegal drugs
• Divorce may improve-by reducing conflict
• Parental support is more important than family structure
• Find it difficult to adjust to parents’ divorce

Adolescents and Siblings

• Become less close to siblings
• Have more equal status by time youngest is 12 years old
• Older sibs must give up power and status

Adolescents and Their Peers

• Peer group is a source of affection, sympathy, understanding and moral guidance
• Serve as “rehearsals” for adjustment problems
• Boys-are aggressive, antisocial
• Girls-shy, isolated, unhappy, negative self-image

Friendships

• Quarrel less with friends
• Choose friends like themselves, race and status
• Intensity of friendships is greatest of lifetime
• Boys friendships-less intimate than girls
• Boys gain self-esteem from competition
• Girls-from helping their friends

Parental Influences

• They shape prosocial behavior-by meeting or failing to meet teen’s basic emotional needs
• Parents of delinquents-fail to reinforce good behavior in early childhood and were harsh and inconsistent in discipline

Antisocial Teens

• Parents not keep track of teens’ activities
• High rate of criminal arrests in family
• Parental conflict, divorce, or mother’s depression

Peer Influence

• Seek out peers like themselves
• Antisocial behavior increases when they associate with other misbehaving teens
• Conversations-can predict probability of drug use and violent behavior at 15 or 16
• Delinquency-is concentrated among poor, overcrowded, urban neighborhoods
• Delinquency peaks at 15 years-then declines

Chapter 14

Psychosocial Development in Young Adulthood  

Erickson:  Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Demands sacrifice and compromise-needs strong sense of self-crisis results in the “virtue” of love
• Erickson’s model excludes singles, celibate, homosexuals, and childless couples, and being unhealthy

Levinson’s Life Structure

• Is one’s underlying pattern of life
• The Dream
• The Mentor
• At 40 years, man discards his mentor and becomes at odds with his wife
• Becomes one’s own man in late 30’s

Timing-Of-Events

• Normative life events
• Nonnormative life events
• Social clock

Factors Influencing Mate Selection

• Physical attractiveness
• Propinquity or physical proximity
• Homogamy or similarity

Types Of Love

• Agape love
• Storage love
• Eros
• Romantic love
• Companionate love

Misconceptions About Love

• Love can guarantee a happy marriage
• Children stabilize an unhappy marriage
• Younger people have better marriages
• Strongly religious wives have less sexual satisfaction and happiness in marriage
• Arranged marriages are less happy than those based on love

Triangular Theory of Love

• Intimacy--is self-disclosure, warmth and trust
• Passion—motivated sexual arousal
• Commitment—decision to love and stay with the beloved

Sexuality:  Issues and Attitudes

• Of 18-59 year olds, 35 percent have never been married
• 53 percent of African Americans-never been married
• Single African American women-are now seen as the norm

Gay and Lesbian Relationships

• Involve 3 percent of men, l ½ percent of women
• Steps to Coming Out
• Recognition of being homosexual
• Getting to know other homosexuals
• Telling family and friends
• Complete openness
• Some are seeking legal recognition of union

Cohabitation

• More than half live together before marriage
• 4-10 will not marry and will break up within 2-5 years
• Higher rate among African Americans
• Law was against it until 1970

Cohabitation-continued

• Have unhappier marriages
• More violence
• Lack support by the community
• Are the most sexually active

Marriage

• Best method to ensure the orderly raising of children
• Are healthiest and happiest
• Typical groom is 27 and bride is 25 years
• Occurs later than ever before
• 21 percent of men and 11.5 of women have had extramarital relations

Factors in Marriage Failures

• Teens have more divorces
• More among cohabitating adults
• More when parents are divorced
• More when have children before being married
• Have no children
• Have stepchildren
• Husband is unemployed

Sexes Have Different Expectations

• Women want shared feelings
• Men seek intimacy with sex, companionship, shared activities

Domestic Violence

• 9-10 of abused are women
• 8-10 physically abusive men witnessed fathers abuse their mother
• Male abusers-are lower educated, unemployed, alcohol or drug abusers
• Abused women-have lower self-esteem and feel they deserve to be beaten

Becoming Parents

• We now have smaller families
• The best educated have their children later
• Older mothers are more satisfied
• Fathers over 35, spend more time with their children

Parenthood

• 1^st child is a major transition
• Fathers spend 1 hour a day in charge of children
• Mothers spend 11 hours a day in charge of children
• The most romantic-have steepest decline in satisfaction
• Planned for children-more dissatisfied
• Longest marriages when marry in late 20’s and are more educated

When Marriage Ends

• The seven-year itch-average marriage in U.S. lasts seven years
• U.S. has the highest divorce rate in the world
• 1.1 million divorces each year

Facets of Divorce

• Emotional Divorce
• Legal Divorce
• Economic Divorce
• Coparental Divorce
• Community Divorce
• Psychic Divorce

Adjusting to Divorce

• Is not a single event, but a process
• Causes feelings of failure, self-recrimination
• Depression
• Disorganized thinking
• Person who initiates is the best adjusted
• It takes 3 years to feel comfortable
• Best adjusted are better educated & have higher SES

Remarriage and Stepparenthood

• 75 percent of women remarry
• 80 percent of men remarry
• 1-10 of adults are currently divorced
• Remarriages are less stable than first ones
• Women have more trouble as stepparents than do men

Successful Blended Families

• Have realistic expectations
• Recognize divided loyalties
• Develop new customs and traditions
• Seek social support

Causal Factors of Poor Health

• Smoking
• Drinking immoderately
• Sleeping less than 7 or more than 9 hours a day
• Eating no breakfast
• Getting no exercise
• Eating between meals